Azolium Metal-Organic Frameworks

ABSTRACT

Disclosed herein are metal-organic frameworks comprising at least two azolium rings. The azolium groups are used as a strategy for controlling catenation and morphology in metal-organic frameworks.

This application is a continuation of and claims priority to and thebenefit of application Ser. No. 13/889,988 filed May 8, 2013 and issuedas U.S. Pat. No. 9,090,634 on Jul. 28, 2015, which claimed priority toand the benefit of Ser. No. 61/644,246 filed on May 8, 2012—each ofwhich is incorporated herein by reference in its entirety.

This invention was made with government support under FA9550-07-1-0534awarded by the Air Force Office of Scientific Research. The governmenthas certain rights in the invention.

FIELD OF THE INVENTION

The present invention relates generally to a metal-organic frameworkcomprising at least two azolium rings. The azolium groups are used as astrategy for controlling catenation and morphology in metal-organicframeworks.

BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION

Metal-organic frameworks (MOFs) have emerged as a promising class offunctional materials due to their microporosity, high internal surfacearea, and the ability to tune their structural and physical parameters(Ferey, G. Chem. Soc. Rev. 2008, 37, 191-214). These properties have ledto the investigation of their application as materials for gas storage,gas separation, and catalysis (Murray, L. et al., Chem. Soc. Rev. 2009,38, 1294-1314; Farha, O. K. et al., Nat. Chem. 2010, 2, 944-948;Furukawa, H. et al., Science 2010, 329, 424-428; Li, J. R. et al., Chem.Soc. Rev. 2009, 38, 1477-1504; Lee, J. et al., Chem. Soc. Rev. 2009, 38,1450-1459). In contrast to the numerous reports regarding theapplication of MOFs toward these goals, there are far fewer reports onstrategies for purifying these materials or for controlling theircatenation, i.e. network interweaving or interpenetration (Farha, O. K.et al., J. Am. Chem. Soc. 2008, 130, 8598-8599). Nevertheless, a fewstrategies for regulating MOF catenation have been investigated,including “liquid-phase epitaxy”, solvent or additive templating,solvent and/or concentration manipulation, and rational ligand design(Shekhah, O. et al., J. Am. Chem. Soc. 2007, 129, 15118-15119; Shekhah,O. et al., Nat. Mater. 2009, 8, 481-484; Ma, S. Q. et al., J. Am. Chem.Soc. 2007, 129, 1858-1859; Ma, L. Q. et al., J. Am. Chem. Soc. 2008,130, 13834-13835; Wang, Q. et al., Inorg. Chem. 2009, 48, 287-295; Song,F. J. et al., J. Am. Chem. Soc. 2010, 132, 15390-15398; He, H. Y. etal., Inorg. Chem. 2010, 49, 7605-7607; Eddaoudi, M. et al., Science2002, 295, 469-472; Zhang, J. J. et al., J. Am. Chem. Soc. 2009, 131,17040-17041).

The most widely reported means of controlling catenation is by eithersolvent or additive-directed templating. For example, Zhou andco-workers have used oxalic acid as a templating agent and1,10-phenanthroline as a sterically demanding group occupyingcoordination sites usually reserved for solvent. In a related report, Suand co-workers were able to demonstrate catenation control by guestinclusion in Cd(II)/Mn(II) 2D networks. Lin and co-workers haveexploited the steric parameters of their solvent-dimethylformamide (DMF)vs diethylformamide (DEF) to achieve catenation control. A differentapproach was taken by Zhang et al. and by Eddaoudi et al., who employedlow concentrations along with temperature parameters to modulateinterpenetration. These strategies constitute important advances, but itremains to be seen if there is broad generality across differentlinkers, metals, and topologies.

Recently disclosed was an orthogonal approach to influence catenation byligand design. Catenation can be influenced by modulating the size ofsubstituents projected into the void space of certain MOF materials.This strategy has been successful across different strut types and evenwhen incorporating large tetracarboxylate ligands (Farha, O. K. et al.,J. Am. Chem. Soc. 2010, 132, 950-952; Farha, O. K. et al., Inorg. Chem.2008, 47, 10223-10225). Also investigated was incorporating azoliumsalts, N-heterocyclic carbine (NHC) precursors, into metal-organicframeworks, a goal that has attracted considerable interest (Lee, J. Y.et al., Inorg. Chem. 2009, 48, 9971-9973; Fei, Z. F. et al., Inorg.Chem. 2005, 44, 5200-5202; Fei, Z. F. et al., Inorg. Chem. 2006, 45,6331-6337; Chun, J. et al., Inorg. Chem. 2009, 48, 6353-6355; Han, L. J.et al., Inorg. Chem. 2009, 48, 786-788; Chun, J. et al., Organometallics2010, 29, 1518-1521; Oisaki, K. et al., J. Am. Chem. Soc. 2010, 132,9262-9264; Crees, R. S. et al., Inorg. Chem. 2010, 49, 1712-1719. WhileNHCs are versatile ligands for transition metals as well asorganocatalysts in their own right, the potential application ofcoordination polymers containing these heterocyclic motifs issignificant (Herrmann, W. A., Angew. Chem., Int. Ed. 2002, 41,1290-1309; Nolan, S. P. N-Heterocyclic Carbenes in Synthesis; Wiley-VCH:Weinheim Chichester, 2006; Enders, D. et al., Chem. Rev. 2007, 107,5606-5655. (b) Nair, V. et al., Chem. Soc. Rev. 2008, 37, 2691-2698;Phillips, E. M. et al., Aldrichim. Acta 2009, 43, 55-66; Phillips, E. M.et al., J. Am. Chem. Soc. 2010, 132, 13179-13181; Cohen, D. T. et al.,Org. Lett. 2011, 13, 1068-1071; Cohen, D. T. et al., Angew. Chem., Int.Ed. 2011, 50, 1678-1682). Regarding their function as ligands, MOFsbearing NHCs could be functionalized with a metal of choicepost-synthetically, yielding reusable heterogeneous transition metalcatalysts with permanent microporosity. With respect to organocatalysis,NHCs immobilized in a MOF would not physically be capable ofdimerization, a known nonproductive pathway under homogeneous conditions(Arduengo, A. J., Acc. Chem. Res. 1999, 32, 913-921). Heterogeneousmaterials for catalysis bearing azolium salts have been reported, butthese materials lack defined, rigid structure and/or suffer from lowporosity (Yadav, J. S. et al., Tetrahedron Lett. 2003, 44, 8959-8962;Barrett, A. G. M. et al., Org. Lett. 2004, 6, 3377-3380; Tan, M. X. etal., Synth. Catal. 2009, 351, 1390-1394; Rose, M. et al., Chem. Commun.2011, 47, 4814-4816).

It is therefore desired to develop robust systems and increased turnovernumbers with suitable azolium-MOF materials. It is further desired to(1) synthesize azolium salts capable of being incorporated into MOFs,(2) incorporate these unique, charged ligands into MOFs, and (3) utilizethese metal-azolium frameworks as precursors for catalysts. Herein arereported new metal-azolium framework (MAF) materials using struts thatvary the number, size, and electrostatic charge of the “side arm” typefunctional groups. This approach in turn has led to a new tactic tocontrol catentation or morphology.

SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION

In light of the foregoing, it is an object of the present invention toprovide a metal-organic framework (MAF) material with two or moreazolium rings. This type of framework is a successful strategy forcontrolling catentation. As such, it is another object of the presentinvention to provide a method for reducing, eliminating or inhibitingcantenation in a metal-organic frameworks (MOF), the method comprisingproviding a biphenyl dicarboxylate derivative having at least twocharged groups projecting into pores of the metal-organic framework, theat least two charged groups repulsing each other due to electrostaticvan der Waals interactions and thereby reducing, eliminating orinhibiting cantentation of the MOF. The MOFs of the invention can beused as catalysts.

Accordingly, it will be understood by those skilled in the art that oneor more aspects of this invention can meet certain objectives, while oneor more other aspects can meet certain other objectives. Each objectivemay not apply equally, in all its respects, to every aspect of thisinvention. As such, the following objects can be viewed in thealternative with respect to any one aspect of this invention.

Other objects, features, benefits and advantages of the presentinvention will be apparent from this summary and the followingdescriptions of certain embodiments, and will be readily apparent tothose skilled in the art. Such objects, features, benefits andadvantages will be apparent from the above as taken into conjunctionwith the accompanying examples, data, and all reasonable inferences tobe drawn therefrom.

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS

FIG. 1 Single crystal X-ray structures of MOF I and MOF II.

FIGS. 2A-B Single crystal X-ray structures of A) MOF I down the a, b andc axis; and B) MOF II down the a, b and c axis.

FIG. 3 Powder X-ray diffraction of MOF I.

FIG. 4 Thermogravimetric analysis of MOF I and MOF II.

FIGS. 5A-B A) Single crystal X-ray structure of catenated repeatingunits of III; and B) Powder X-ray diffraction of III.

FIGS. 6A-B A) Thermogravimetric analysis showing traces of III and IV;B) Powder X-ray diffraction of IV; and C) density separation experiment.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION

Accordingly, the present invention includes a metal-organic frameworkcomprising at least two heterocyclic quaternary salts, such as azoliumsalts. Illustrating certain non-limiting aspects and embodiments of theinvention, the azolium salts of the present invention can be imidazoliumsalts.

In a preferred embodiment, two biphenyl dicarboxylate (bpdc) basedlinkers with appended methyl imidazolium salts are prepared according toScheme 1. Referring to Scheme 1, 3 is combined with Cu(NO₃)₂.3H₂O in a1:1 DMF/EtOH (DMF=dimethylformamide; EtOH=ethanol) mixture at 110° C.,deep blue crystals with a framework formula ofCu₂(3).2(DMF_(x)/EtOH_(1-x)) (I) are obtained after sitting overnight.Single crystal X-ray diffraction reveals these crystals to contain twoindependent sets of 2D sheets, each containing Cu₂(CO₂)₄ paddlewheelSBUs bridged by 3 (FIG. 1), yielding a subunit similar to the onereported by Jeong and co-workers (see Jeong, N. et al., Chem Sci 2011,2, 877-882, incorporated herein by reference). Referring to FIG. 1, theleft portion depicts a subunit of I and view down the c-axis of the unitcell, with each of the two independent networks shown in a differentshade. FIG. 2A shows a view of II down the a, b and c axis.

Next, and again referring to Scheme 1, combining 4 with Cu(NO₃)₂.3H₂Ounder identical reaction conditions as used to make I yielded deep bluecrystals with a framework formula of Cu₂(4).2 (DMF_(x)/EtOH_(1-x)) (II).Single crystal X-ray diffraction reveals II to still contain twoindependent sets of 2D sheets and the same repeating unit as I. However,II possesses a different morphology than I and contains much largerchannels (ca. 13 Å across). Referring to FIG. 1, the right portion ofthe diagram depicts a subunit of II and view down the c-axis of the unitcell, with each of the two independent networks shown in a differentshade. FIG. 2B shows a view of II down the a, b and c axis.

Powder X-ray diffraction (PXRD) likewise shows these materials to bedistinct from one another (see FIGS. 3A and 3B). Apart from thecrystallographic evidence, the different morphology is apparent inthermogravimetric analysis (TGA) traces for I and II (FIG. 4). Asanticipated, II exhibits greater mass loss (solvent DMF and EtOHmolecules) than I between 25 and 275° C. I loses approximately 25% ofits weight before decomposition, whereas II loses roughly 60%.

In another aspect of the invention, zinc MAFs are also synthesized. Tothis end, it was hypothesized that when combined with Zn(NO₃)₂.6H₂O,strut 3 would yield cubic networks with Zn₄O nodes, similar to thenoncatenated material IRMOF-10 (see Eddaoudi et al., Science 2002, 295,469-472, incorporated herein by reference), since 3 is similar to bpdcbut possesses more steric bulk. The combination of 3 with Zn(NO₃)₂^(.)6H₂O in DMF and heated at 90° C. for 2 days gave colorless, blockcrystals with a framework formula of Zn₄O(3)₃ (III). Single-crystalX-ray analysis reveals the crystals to comprise a catenated pair ofnetworks, i.e. analogous to IRMOF-9 instead of IRMOF-10 (FIG. 5). Inhopes of producing an IRMOF-10 derivative, 4 is combined withZn(NO₃)₂.6H₂O in DMF and heated at 90° C. for 2 days. Once again,colorless block crystals (IV) are obtained. Interestingly, thesecrystals do not furnish a satisfactory single crystal diffractionpattern.

Consequently, other techniques are used to characterize IV, seeking todetermine if this material is in fact an IRMOF-10 analogue. PXRD revealsIV to be distinct from IV (FIG. 6B), and the powder pattern for IVclosely resembles a predicted powder pattern generated from acomputational model that removed one of the interpenetrating networks inIII. This comparison supports the assessment that IV is an IRMOF-10analogue. In addition to the PXRD data, a density separation experimentprovides further support for IV possessing an uncatenated framework,since it possesses a lower density respective to III (see Farha, O. K.et al., J. Am. Chem. Soc. 2008, 130, 8598-8599, incorporated herein byreference). FIG. 6C shows that III sinks to the bottom whereas IV floatswith the appropriate solvent composition (0.8:1 v:v DMSO/CH₂BrCl;DMSO=dimethyl sulfoxide; CH₂BrCl=bromochloromethane), even though thestrut is heavier. TGA measurements result in a similar conclusion. Asanticipated, IV experiences greater solvent loss than III (45% of itsweight as opposed to 25% for III). The combined experiments of TGA (FIG.6A), comparison of simulated and predicted PXRD (FIG. 6B), and densityseparation (FIG. 6C) support the conclusion that IV is indeed thenon-catenated, double azolium framework analogous to IRMOF-10.

The primary factor contributing to the observed inhibition of catenationor change in morphology is the additional azolium “side arm” of strut 4(vs 3) which projects into the pore of IV. This structural element(steric and charged substituent directing into the pore) has beenimplicated in the generation of other IRMOF-10-type derivatives in arelated system (Lun, D. J. et al., J. Am. Chem. Soc. 2011, 133,5806-5809, incorporated herein by reference). Although a few examples ofinfluencing catenation by adding steric elements have recently appearedin the MOF literature, it is believed that each case is system-specific,i.e. two or more charged groups repulsing each other due toelectrostatic van der Waals interactions. Furthermore, while thisstrategy results in higher porosity due to the removal of aninterpenetrated network, the additional steric elements in the existingframework may result in pores that are partially or fully blocked.Another influence on catenation is presumably the unusual electrostaticenvironment created by increasing the number of imidazolium groupsarrayed within the pore of MOF IV. This unusual property contributes tounusually high hydrogen absorption energies. To date, all bases (variousalkoxides and amines) to which IV has been exposed, with the aim ofcreating catalytically active N-heterocyclic carbine (NHCs), have beenfound to promote framework degradation.

The MOFs disclosed herein can be considered in the context ofcoordination of an inorganic metal center block component with one ormore organic linker/ligand block components comprising two or moreterminal heterocyclic quaternary salts, such as azolium salts, andpreferably imidazolium salts. Specific examples of metals contemplatedinclude, but are not limited to, any oxidation state of magnesium,calcium, strontium, barium, radium, aluminum, gallium, indium, thallium,silicon, germanium, tin, lead, arsenic, antimony, scandium, titanium,vanadium, chromium, manganese, iron, cobalt, nickel, copper, zinc,yttrium, zirconium, niobium, molybdenum, technetium, rubidium, rhodium,palladium, silver, cadmium, hafnium, tantalum, tungsten, rhenium,osmium, iridium, platinum, gold, mercury, lanthanum, cerium,praseodymium, neodymium, promethium, samarium, europium, gadolinium,terbium, dysprosium, holmium, erbium, thulium, and ytterbium. Metalcomponents that can coordinate to such ligands comprise metal ions suchas but not limited to Mg2+, Ca2+, Sr2+, Ba2+, Sc3+, Y3+, Ti4+, Zr4+,Hf4+, V4+, V3+, V2+, Nb3+, Ta3+, Cr3+, Mo3+, W3+, Mn3+, Mn2+, Re3+,Re2+, Fe3+, Fe2+, Ru3+, Ru2+, Os3+, Os2+, Co3+, C2+, Rh2+, Rh+, Ir2+,Ir+, Ni2+, Ni+, Pd2+, Pd+, Pt2+, Pt+, Cu2+, Cu+, Ag+, Au+, Zn2+, Cd2+,Hg2+, A13+, Ga3+, In3+, T13+, Si4+, Si2+, Ge4+, Ge2+, Sn4+, Sn2+, Pb4+,Pb2+, As5+, As3+, As+, Sb5+, Sb3+, Sb+, and Bi5+, Bi3+, and Bi+. Suchmetal ions are available through corresponding metal salts, inconjunction with any acceptable counter ion(s), such as but not limitedto nitrate. In certain non-limiting embodiments, such metals can betransition metals, such as any oxidation state of vanadium, copper, zincand zirconium. Specific metals and oxidation states contemplated for usein the MOFs disclosed herein include, but are not limited to, Zr4+, V4+,V3+, Cu2+, Cu+, and Zn2+. Without limitation, as can relate to variousMOFs illustrated herein, metal centers associated with inorganic blockcomponents can include Cu₂, Zn₄O, Zn₂, V₃O₃, and Zr₆O₆.

As provided for herein, the MOFs can be polymeric crystallinestructures, which are polymers of inorganic metal center blockcomponents coordinated to one or more organic linker/ligand blockcomponents. The materials produced herein can be “crystalline,” whichrefers to the ordered definite crystalline structure, such a materialwhich is unique and thus identifiable by a characteristic X-raydiffraction pattern.

In some cases, the MOFs disclosed herein are substantially free ofsolvents. As used herein “substantially free” means that solvents arepresent in the MOF at levels less than 1 wt % by weight of the MOF, andpreferably from 0 wt % to about 0.5 wt % by weight of the MOF. Thesolvent can be removed from the MOF by exposing the MOF to elevatedtemperatures under reduced pressure, or by soaking the MOF in a lowboiling solvent to exchange the coordinated solvent for the low boilingsolvent, then exposing the MOF to reduced pressure. The amount ofsolvent in the MOF can be determined by elemental analysis or otherknown analytical techniques.

EXAMPLES General

All reactions are carried out under a nitrogen atmosphere in flame-driedglassware with magnetic stirring unless otherwise stated. All reagentsare purchased from Aldrich unless otherwise stated. CH₃CN (acetonitrile)is purified by passage through a bed of activated alumina (see Pangborn,A. B. et al., Organometal. 1996, 15, 1518-1520, incorporated herein byreference). Reagents are purified prior to use unless otherwise statedfollowing the guidelines of Perrin and Armarego (see Perrin, D. D. andArmarego, W. L., Purification of Laboratory Chemicals; 3rd Ed., PergamonPress, Oxford. 1988, incorporated herein by reference). Analytical thinlayer chromatography is performed on EM Reagent 0.25 mm silica gel 60°F. plates. Visualization is accomplished with UV light. ¹H-NMR spectraare recorded on a Bruker AVANCE III 500 (500 MHz) spectrometer and arereported in ppm using solvent as an internal standard (CDCl₃ at 7.26ppm, DMSO-d₆ at 2.50 ppm, and D₂SO₄ at 10.5 ppm). Data are reported as(ap=apparent, s=singlet, d=doublet, t=triplet, q=quartet, m=multiplet,b=broad) coupling constant(s) in Hz; integration. Proton-decoupled¹³C-NMR spectra are recorded on a Bruker AVANCE III 500 (125 MHz)spectrometer and are reported in ppm using solvent as an internalstandard (CDCl₃ at 77.16 ppm and DMSO-d₆ at 39.52 ppm). Mass spectradata is obtained on an Agilent 1100 Series LC/MSD. FTIR spectra data isobtained on a Bruker Tensor 37 FTIR. Compounds are named herein usingChemDraw Ultra 12.0 or 13.0.

Example 1

Dimethyl 2-methylbiphenyl-4,4′-dicarboxylate (1): This compound isprepared according to a preexisting literature procedure, i.e. Zhu, L.et al., J. Org. Chem. 2003, 68, 3729, incorporated herein by reference).

Example 2

Dimethyl 2,2′-dimethylbiphenyl-4,4′-dicarboxylate (2): This compound isprepared using a modified literature procedure as described in Zhu etal. The reaction is run on a 7.8 mmol scale according to the literatureprocedure. Methyl 3-methyl-4-bromobenzoate is used in both steps of thereaction. After workup the resulting solid is purified by flash columnchromatorgraphy (SiO₂, 10% EtOAc/Hexane) yielding 2 (1.94g, 84%) aswhite crystalline solid. Analytical data for 2: IR (ATR) 2953, 1713,1453, 1285, 1253, 1200, 1113, 1005, 773 cm⁻¹; ¹H NMR (500 MHz, CDCl₃) δ7.97 (s, 2H), 7.91 (d, J=9.2 Hz, 2H), 7.15 (d, J=15 Hz, 2H) 3.94 (s,6H), 2.07 (s, 6H); ¹³C (125 MHz, CDCl₃) δ 167.2, 145.6, 136, 131.3,129.5, 129.1, 127.1, 52.3, 19.8; HRMS (CI) : Exact mass calcd forC₁₄H₁₈O₄ [M+1]⁺, 299.12. Found: 299.1.

Example 3

3-((4,4′-dicarboxybiphenyl-2-yl)methyl)-1-methyl-1H-imidazol-3-iumbromide (3): To a 100 ml round bottom flask containing a stir bar isadded 1 (2.54 g, 8.96 mmol), N-bromo succinimide (1.83 g, 10.3 mmol),AIBN (0.147 g, 0.896 mmol) and CCl₄ (45 ml). The flask is fitted with areflux condensor and refluxed for 3 hours or until thin layerchromatography (TLC) (30% EtOAc/Hex) shows full conversion. The contentsof the flask are directly filtered into a 100 ml round bottom flask toremove the succinimide and the filtrate is concentrated under reducedpressure to yield a pale yellow semi-solid. This solid is dried underhigh vacuum overnight. A stir bar is added to the flask containing thecrude brominated compound and CH₃CN (45 ml) and 1-methyl imidazole (1.56ml, 19.7 mmol) are added. The flask is fitted with a reflux condenserand heated at 80° C. for 2 hours. After cooling to room temperature, thereaction mixture is transferred to a 200 ml round bottom flask andconcentrated under reduced pressure to yield a brown oil. This oil isdried under high vacuum yielding the crude imidazolium bromide as a tanfoam. To the flask containing the crude imidazolium bromide is added astir bar and the foam is dissolved in 90 ml of a 3:1 MeOH:H₂O mixture.LiOH (3.67 g, 89.6 mmol) is added in one portion and the reactionstirred for three hours at 23° C. After three hours, the reactionmixture is acidified to pH 1 with HBr (conc., 48% w/w) and the MeOH isremoved under reduced pressure. After ˜50 ml of solvent is removed awhite precipitate fell out of solution. This precipitate is filtered,washed with water, and dried under high vacuum yielding 3 (2.175 g, 62%)as an off-white solid. Analytical data for 3: IR (ATR) 3356, 2972, 1713,1648, 1605, 1384, 1290, 1238, 1161, 1100, 953, 815 cm⁻¹; ¹H NMR (500MHz, DMSO-d₆) δ 8.76 (s, 1H) 8.06 (d, J=9.4 Hz, 1H) 8.01 (d, J=8.3 Hz,2H) 7.97 (s, 1H) 7.61 (s, 1H) 7.46 (d, J=8.9 Hz, 1H) 7.42 (d, J=8.2 Hz,2H) 7.40 (s, 1H) 5.46 (s, 2H) 3.74 (s, 3H); ¹³C (125 MHz, DMSO-d₆) δ167, 166.7, 144.8, 142.8, 136.9, 132.3, 131.1, 130.8, 130.5, 130.3,129.8, 129.6, 128.8, 123.8, 122.5, 50.2, 35.8; HRMS (CI): Exact masscalcd for C₁₉H₁₇O₄N₂ [M]⁺, 337.12. Found: 337.1.

Example 4

3,3′-(4,4′-dicarboxybiphenyl-2,2′-diyl)bis(methylene)bis(1-methyl-1H-imidazol-3-ium)bromide (4): To a 50 ml round bottom flask containing a stir bar isadded 2 (1.21 g, 4.06 mmol), N-bromo succinimide (1.59 g, 8.94 mmol),AIBN (0.066 g, 0.406 mmol) and CCl4 (20 ml). The flask is fitted with areflux condenser and refluxed for 3 hours or until TLC (30% EtOAc/Hex)shows full conversion. The contents of the flask are directly filteredinto a 50 ml round bottom flask to remove the succinimide and thefiltrate is concentrated under reduced pressure to yield a pale yellowoil. This oil is dried under high vacuum overnight. A stir bar is addedto the flask containing the crude brominated compound and CH₃CN (20 ml)and 1-methyl imidazole (0.73 ml, 8.94 mmol) are added. The flask isfitted with a reflux condenser and heated at 80° C. for 2 hours. Aftercooling to room temperature, the reaction mixture is transferred to a100 ml round bottom flask and concentrated under reduced pressure toyield a brown oil. This oil is dried under high vacuum yielding thecrude imidazolium bromide as a tan foam. To the flask containing thecrude imidazolium bromide is added a stir bar and the foam is dissolvedin 40 ml of a 1:1 THF:H₂O mixture. LiOH (1.66 g, 40.6 mmol) is added inone portion and the reaction stirred for three hours at 23° C. Afterthree hours, the reaction mixture is acidified to pH 1 with HBr (conc.,48% w/w) and the THF is removed under reduced pressure. After ˜20 ml ofsolvent is removed the contents of the flask are filtered to remove anysolid and the filtrate is left to crystallize. After ˜24 hours whiteneedle crystals began to fall out of solution. In subsequent reactionsthe filtrate is seeded with product. The crystals are filtered, washedwith water, and dried under high vacuum yielding 4 (1.076 g, 45%) as awhite crystalline solid. Analytical data for 4: IR (ATR) 3383, 2972,1710, 1379, 1284, 1261, 1161, 952 cm⁻¹; ¹H NMR (500 MHz, DMSO-d₆) δ 8.73(s, 2H), 8.01 (s, 2H), 7.96 (d, J=9.2 Hz, 2H), 7.66 (s, 2H), 7.43 (s,2H), 7.18 (d, J=8.9 Hz) 5.24 (dd, J=104 Hz), 3.77 (s, 3H); ¹³C (125 MHz,DMSO-d₆) δ 166.6, 142.2, 136.8, 132.5, 131.4, 130.7, 130, 129.8, 123.8,122.5, 50.2, 35.9; HRMS (CI): Exact mass calcd for C₂₄H₂₄O₄N₄ [M/2]⁺,216.09. Found: 216.1.

Example 5

Preparation of MOF I and MOF II—A single crystal of I is synthesized viasolvothermal reaction of Cu(NO₃).3H₂O (0.726 mmol, 0.175 g) and 3 (0.242mmol, 0.1 g) in 10 ml of a 1:1 DMF:EtOH solution. The reagents andsolvent are added to a 20 ml scintillation vial and sonicated until thesolution is homogeneous. This vial is placed in an oven set to 110° C.After 3 hours deep teal crystals are visible. After heating overnight,the solvent is replaced with fresh DMF:EtOH which has been warmed to110° C. and the vial is allowed to cool to room temperature. Crystalsare stored at room temperature under the 1:1 DMF:EtOH solvent mixture.II is prepared in an analogous manner, except using 0.168 mmol (0.1 g)of 4 (instead of 3) and 0.5 mmol (0.122 g) of Cu(NO₃).3H₂O.

Example 6

Preparation of MOF III and MOF IV—A single crystal of III is synthesizedvia solvothermal reaction of Zn(NO₃).6H₂O (0.3 mmol, 0.089 g) and 3 (0.1mmol, 0.041 g) in 7 ml of DMF. The reagents and solvent are added to a20 ml scintillation vial and sonicated until the solution ishomogeneous. This vial is placed in an oven set to 90° C. After heatingovernight, small block crystals are observed. After 36 hours of heatingthe solvent is replaced with fresh DMF which has been warmed to 90° C.and the vial is allowed to cool to room temperature. Crystals are storedat room temperature under DMF. IV is prepared in an analogous manner,except using 0.1 mmol (0.059 g) of 4.

Example 7

Characterization of MOFs—Single crystals of I, II, and III are mountedin oil on glass fibers and placed in a nitrogen cold stream at 100K of aBruker AXS APEX2 diffractometer equipped with a CCD detector andgraphite monocrhomated CuKc (I, III) or MoKc (II) radiation. All data iscorrected for absorption via SADABS. Structures are solved and refinedusing the SHELXTL suite of software. The program SQUEEZE (Platon) isused to remove electronic contributions from solvent molecules for eachstructure.

IR spectra of I-IV are collected on a Bruker Tensor 37 FTIR with an ATRattachment. IR data for I (ATR) 3480, 1666, 1393, 1107, 780, 684, 667cm⁻¹. IR data for II (ATR) 3444, 1668, 1391, 1164, 1107, 782, 682, 667cm⁻¹. IR data for III (ATR) 1668, 1616, 1339, 1165, 783, 679, 667 cm⁻¹.IR data for IV (ATR) 1668, 1606, 1390, 1103, 781, 682, 665 cm⁻¹.

Powder patterns for I and II are collected on Bruker AXS APEX2diffractometer equipped with a CCD detector and a CuKc IμS microfocussource with MX optics. Samples are mounted in glass capillaries with asmall amount of motherliquor. Data are collected with an area detectoras rotation frames over 180° in φ at 2θ values of 12°, 24°, and 36° andexposed for 10 minutes for each frame. At a distance of 150 mm, thedetector area covers 24° in 2θ. Overlapping sections of data are matchedand the resulting pattern integrated using the Bruker APEX2 Phase IDprogram. Powder pattern data are treated for amorphous backgroundscatter (EVA 16, Copyright Bruker-AXS 1996-2010).

PXRD patterns for III and IV are collected using a Rigaku XDS 2000diffractometer using CuKα radiation (λ=1.5418 Å). Predicted PXRD spectraare generated using Mercury v. 2.4 for Mac OsX. Samples are mounted onquartz sample holders as a slurry of ground MOF and DMF.

TGA is recorded on a Mettler Toledo TGA/SDTA851e interfaced with a PCusing Star software. The heating range is from 25° C. to 700° C. Theheating rate is 10° C./min under a nitrogen atmosphere. All samples arefiltered directly from DMF or 1:1 DMF:EtOH solutions before theexperiment.

The density separation experiment preformed on III and IV is carried outin the method reported by Farha et al. (Farha, O. K. et al., J. Am.Chem. Soc. 2008, 130, 8598, incorporated herein by reference). Materialthat is shown to be III via PXRD sinks to the bottom of a 1 dram vialcontaining a 4:5 mixture of DMSO:CH2BrCl. Material that is shown to beIV via PXRD rises to the top of a 1 dram vial containing a 4:5 mixtureof DMSO:CH₂BrCl. When a mixture of III and IV is added to a 1 dram vialcontaining a 4:5 mixture of DMSO:CH₂BrCl, the materials separate in ˜30seconds. The predicted PXRD of IV is generated by a computationalprogram developed by Chris Wilmer et al.

In conclusion, the ability to manipulate the morphology of distinctCu-paddlewheel and cubic systems using new azolium-based ligands: 2Dcopper paddlewheel sheets and isoreticular networks similar to IRMOF-9and -10, is demonstrated. Catenation control is observed by acombination of single crystal X-ray diffraction, PXRD, densityseparation, and TGA experiments. The incorporation of different numbersof charged groups such as azolium salts into porous materials impact thelevel of catenation or morphology.

It is to be understood that the above description is intended to beillustrative, and not restrictive. For example, the above-describedembodiments (and/or aspects thereof) may be used in combination witheach other. In addition, many modifications may be made to adapt aparticular situation or material to the teachings of the inventivesubject matter described herein without departing from its scope. Whilethe dimensions and types of materials described herein are intended todefine the parameters of one or more embodiments of the inventivesubject matter, they are by no means limiting and are exampleembodiments. Many other embodiments will be apparent to one of ordinaryskill in the art upon reviewing the above description. The scope of thesubject matter described herein should, therefore, be determined withreference to the appended clauses, along with the full scope ofequivalents to which such clauses are entitled. In the appended clauses,the terms “including” and “in which” are used as the plain-Englishequivalents of the respective terms “comprising” and “wherein.”Moreover, in the following clauses, the terms “first,” “second,” and“third,” etc. are used merely as labels, and are not intended to imposenumerical requirements on their objects.

This written description uses examples to disclose several embodimentsof the inventive subject matter and also to enable any person ofordinary skill in the art to practice the embodiments disclosed herein,including making and using any devices or systems and performing anyincorporated methods. The patentable scope of the subject matter isdefined by the clauses, and may include other examples that occur to oneof ordinary skill in the art. Such other examples are intended to bewithin the scope of the clauses if they have structural elements that donot differ from the literal language of the clauses, or if they includeequivalent structural elements with insubstantial differences from theliteral languages of the clauses.

The foregoing description of certain embodiments of the disclosedsubject matter will be better understood when read in conjunction withthe appended drawings. The various embodiments are not limited to thearrangements and instrumentality shown in the drawings.

As used herein, an element or step recited in the singular and proceededwith the word “a” or “an” should be understood as not excluding pluralof said elements or steps, unless such exclusion is explicitly stated.Furthermore, references to “one embodiment” of the inventive subjectmatter are not intended to be interpreted as excluding the existence ofadditional embodiments that also incorporate the recited features.Moreover, unless explicitly stated to the contrary, embodiments“comprising,” “including,” or “having” an element or a plurality ofelements having a particular property may include additional suchelements not having that property.

Since certain changes may be made in the above-described systems andmethods, without departing from the spirit and scope of the subjectmatter herein involved, it is intended that all of the subject matter ofthe above description or shown in the accompanying drawings shall beinterpreted merely as examples illustrating the inventive conceptsherein and shall not be construed as limiting the disclosed subjectmatter.

The disclosures of all articles and references, including patents, areincorporated herein by reference. The invention and the manner andprocess of making and using it are now described in such full, clear,concise and exact terms as to enable any person skilled in the art towhich it pertains, to make and use the same. All references cited inthis specification are incorporated herein by reference.

What is claimed is:
 1. A method for reducing, eliminating or inhibitingcatenation in a metal-organic frameworks (MOF), the method comprisingproviding a biphenyl dicarboxylate derivative having at least twocharged groups projecting into pores of the metal-organic framework, theat least two charged groups repulsing each other due to electrostaticvan der Waals interactions; and reducing, eliminating or inhibitingcantentation of the metal-organic framework.
 2. The method according toclaim 1 wherein the metal-organic framework is an azolium-based metalorganic framework.
 3. The method according to claim 2 wherein theazolium-based metal organic framework comprises a structure of a metalion selected from the group consisting of Cu₂ and Zn₄O, and the biphenyldicarboxylate derivative has a formula

wherein X is selected from H (3) and

and wherein the structure is characterized in that the biphenyldicarboxylate derivative is coordinated to the metal ion through thedicarboxylate portion of the biphenyl dicarboxylate derivative.
 4. Themethod according to claim 3 wherein the azolium-based metal organicframework according to claim 1 wherein X is


5. The method according to claim 4 wherein the metal ion is Cu₂.
 6. Themethod according to claim 4 wherein the structure has a formula selectedfrom the group consisting of Cu₂(4).2 (DMF_(y)/EtOH_(1-y)) and Zn₄O(4)₃,wherein DMF and EtOH are solvent molecules dimethylformamide andethanol, respectively, and y is the number of DMF solvent molecules.